Teorie ideologii na przecięciu marksizmu i psychoanalizy

W dwudziestym wieku doszło do ważnego spotkania, owocnego dla teorii społecznej: marksistowscy myśliciele sięgnęli po psychoanalityczne inspiracje, by wyjaśnić, jak działa proces reprodukcji społecznej. Powstała w ten sposób teoria ideologii, podejmująca najważniejsze socjologiczne problemy: włączenia podmiotu w relacje społeczne, sposobu działania symboli w codziennym życiu, odtwarzania i zmiany struktur społecznych. Książka Krzysztofa Świrka Teorie ideologii na przecięciu marksizmu i psychoanalizy rekonstruuje tę problematykę, osadzając ją w kontekście starych pytań, które socjologia odziedziczyła po wieku dwudziestym i nowych, z którymi konfrontują ją pierwsze dekady następnego stulecia. Oferuje także próbę uspójnienia różnych inspiracji teoretycznych w całościową teorię, w której ideologia rozumiana jest jako sposób, w jaki podmiot odnajduje swoje miejsce w strukturach społecznych.

The subject of this book is the notion of ideology, as it is developed in traditions of Marxism and psychoanalysis. The reason to analyze this notion once again is its unrivaled critical force, the way it instantaneously posits a number of theoretical problems (such as status of knowledge, mechanisms of socialization, relation between social theory and politics), which are, at the same time, crucial problems of social theory as such. It is argued, that this theory cannot be shown as a fully systematic and transparent research paradigm, but rather as a specific type of reflection, that develops thanks to its inherent contradictions. In terms of the theory of ideology, specific problems of Marxist social theory found their formulation. For instance: the problem of subjectivity, the place of the symbolic in social reproduction, mediation of the class struggle by political and legal forms, and so on. Those problems eventually led some Marxists to seek inspiration in psychoanalysis. The line of thought presented in this book aims to surpass thinking in terms of levels of explanation (in which Marxism is 'responsible' for social, and psychoanalysis for subjective level) to show, how the affinity of those theories is based on different, properly theoretical level of thinking in terms of structures and formal figures. Introductory chapter introduces liberal and conservative conceptions of ideology as opposed to its Marxist-psychoanalytic version. The difference in conceptualizations is interpreted as expression of political differences: conservative and liberal theories of ideology aim to delegitimize Marxism as a political theory responsible for 'ideological madness' of twentieth-century totalitarianism. In conclusion of introductory remarks a research method is proposed, that shows Marxist and psychoanalytic theoretical tools as a valuable inspiration for study of historical experience of Stalinism. The first chapter offers a reconstruction of Marx's concept of ideology as a field of problems. The method of reading used here stands in opposition to those reconstructions, that seek to systematize Marx's formulas in a static set of definitions. Rather than searching for clear-cut answers, it seeks to reconstruct problems and questions. The problem of ideology is interpreted here through the notions of social reproduction and representation. The formal complexity of relations, that Marx's explores in his texts, is highlighted. The second chapter presents psychoanalysis as a theoretical language that 'intervenes' in the task of understanding ideology. The first part of the chapter deals with status of Marxism and psychoanalysis as engaged theories, that refer to antagonisms as places of truth of social and subjective structures. With the analysis of certain works by Freud, the formal model of complex interactions between elements of psychic space of the subject is reconstructed. Next part of the chapter examines so called 'Freudo-Marxism' as historically first way of using psychoanalysis to confront the problem of ideology. Final parts of the chapter introduce the theory of Jacques Lacan as that brand of psychoanalysis that highlights its structural aspect. The next chapter explores subject theory, using ideas of twentieth century theoreticians of ideology: Louis Althusser, Fredric Jameson and Slavoj Žižek. The first part of the chapter introduces Louis Althusser's analysis of the category of 'subject' as ideological form. The modification of this model is proposed, thanks to which the ideological phenomena are possible to distinguish from subjective structures. Fredric Jameson's reads the notion of subject dialectically: according to his take, human subject develops in accordance with the rhythm of subsequent alienations and their overcoming. Next part of the chapter seeks to reconstruct the subject theory in the works of Slavoj Žižek on the basis of two important motives. The first one is the motive of negativity, described as a '(non-)place' through which subjectivity emerges. The second motive is 'recognition', understood as the gesture of the subject taking responsibility for his own, structurally determined, situation. This part of the chapter ends with a proposition of a theory of subjectivity that differs from rational actor theory and constructivist notion of subjectivity as an effect of discourses of power. This theory helps to analyze immersion in ideology, as well as the possibility of overcoming it. Theory of the subject is set together with the conception of social structure as organized around lack. Subjective and structural dimensions are supplemented with that of historical situation. The chapter is summed up by organizing those three dimensions around the problem of structural crisis as a moment of 'superimposing' of determination and possibility of political action. In concluding remarks, theory of ideology reconstructed in the book is viewed from the standpoint of relation between critique and what is exposed by it: critique of illusions is combined here with recognition of their necessity. Another element of the context is contemporary historical situation, which sees traditional institutions at their 'zero-point', beyond the veil of traditions, that surrounded their structural workings. The book ends with a brief commentary on ongoing importance of theory of ideology as a tool for emancipatory, yet realist political thinking.