Автобиографические исповеди в литературе: Претексты. Тексты. Контексты

Lyudmila LutsevichAUTOBIOGRAPHIC CONFESSIONS IN LITERATURE(PRETEXTS. TEXTS. CONTEXTS)SUMMARYThe autobiographical confessional word determined to a certain extentthe formation and the long process of the development of a new verbalculture throughout Europe, starting from late antiquity, through theMiddle Ages and the Renaissance to the Modern period. Humanity’sunderstanding of its historical path as a movement from the individual’sancient physicality to the Christian spirituality of a person is recorded withdifferent degree of mastery in various national literatures.Despite the practices of the past centuries, confessional word of suchthinkers as Saint Augustine, Pierre Abelard, Jean-Jacques Rousseau andtheir followers remain the unique experience for the entire Christian world.European literatures that survived the times of imitative apprenticeship ofthe original development continue the endless process of philosophical,theological, ethical, and aesthetic comprehension of the complexconfessional word, making it essential and constructive.The barely nascent Russian literature entered the path of mastering theconfessional-penitent feeling at that time. Having survived all sorts of upsand downs in the process of the formation and the development, it hasinvariably retained the spirit of the Christian spirituality for many centuriestill the 20th, cultivated high teaching preaching, and repentant confession.In the second half of the 18th century, the genre of autobiographicalconfession begins to evolve in the Russian literature, and at the beginningof the 19th century the first artistic confession appears. Confession becomesa significant intention in the Russian classical literature.The observations of the monograph’s author mainly relate toautobiographical confessions, which have never become the subject of anindependent consistent study, although they have existed in the Russianverbal culture for a long time. The 19th century becomes a period of theirmost obvious actualization with its increased attention to the personalityand the psyche; therefore, the main attention is focused on the analysis ofautobiographical confessions of the 19th century. Their authors, as a rule,are in a state of intense search for truth about themselves and the world,concentrating on issues that seem to be private, personal, and sometimeseven trivial, but their intimate personality and external earthliness ofteninvolve essential problems, that anyway are solved through fundamentalChristian values. Trying to understand themselves, to realize the processesof their own and universal human development (including creative),Russian authors examine their spiritual experience, trying to discoverthe «hidden springs» of events and phenomena, to reveal the depths oftheir own psyche, and to find adequate ways, methods and means of selfexpression.It is confessional narrative that dominates in the literature ofthe 19th century, both in autobiographical and artistic.The formal attribute comes to the first place when material forstudy, analysis and classification is selected: the presence of the wordconfession (its synonyms: acknowledgement, repentance) in the title,subtitle or directly in the text of the work. In fact, there are certainly moreconfessional texts than there are formally labeled in one way or another:all Russian classical literature is to some extent confessional. However, itis a formal attribute that allows, on the one hand, to locate the material,on the other, to limit it and pose the problem of the author’s reception:why does the author consider their text to be a confession? what are theopen / hidden meanings that are present here? what are the goals? Evenwhen following this hard-formal approach, there are dozens of Russianautobiographical confessions of the 19th century.The monograph includes a preface, an introduction, and three sections.The introductory part includes two chapters, the first represents theexperiences of the historical and theoretical descriptions of confession;and the second one is a reflection on confession as a key word of culture.Section one has two chapters as well: the first chapter presents the«necessary non-textual context» (M. Bakhtin), which consists of essays onthe literary confessions of three European authors (Saint Augustin, PierreAbelard, Jean-Jacques Rousseau), which influenced the development ofliterary and social thought in both Europe and Russia; the second chapterpresents some forms of perception of confessing Europeans (the sameAugustine, Abelard and Russo) represented by the Russian authors of theSilver Age – D. Merezhkovsky, D. Filosofov, V. Rozanov and G. Fedotov.Section two consists of observations that made it possible to map thehistory of Russian autobiographical confessions since the appearanceof some autobiographical elements in the Middle Ages (e.g., by EfimiyTurkov and Martyri Zelenetsky) and the 17th century, where the activitiesof protopope Avvakum are especially emphasized.The third section, the central one, includes essays that have becomethe history of the Russian autobiographical confessions from the time ofthe establishment of «sincere confessions» in the second half of the 18thcentury, associated with the names of Catherine II and D. Fonvizin, anduntil the end of the 19th century, the period of the most active developmentof the genre; starting from the first artistic confession of the 19th century byNikolai Karamzin and the autobiographical confessions of Peter Vyazemsky,Nikolas I, Nikolay Gogol, Mikhail Bakunin, Nikolay Ogarev, VasilyKelsiev, Alexei Tolstoy, Konstantin Leontiev, Lev Tolstoy, Lev Tikhomirov.However, the study of the phenomenon of the Russian autobiographicalconfession shows: the history of the origin and the development of thisgenre coincides with the formation and the development of the originalRussian literature, which initially has an increased attention to spiritual,moral, psychological problems; the internal state of a creative person, inaccordance with the spirit of the times, is determined by religiosity.Spiritual and everyday churching that was deep-rooted into the dailylife of the Early Russia, is also a characteristic feature of the ModernPeriod, and has retained at the state level the obligatory respect of dogmasof the Christian faith, observance of the church calendar, participation inthe divine services and sacraments, in accordance with the establishedregulations. Churching presupposed a natural and necessary «ingrowth» ofa person into the body of the church. Religion spread through all spheresof public and private life, determining from the moment a person wasborn the nature of their existence, upbringing, and education. Teachingof religious disciplines in the Russian Empire was conducted in schools,gymnasiums, and universities. Of course, churching as the depth ofreligiosity, could have been different: from everyday piety to completerenunciation of secular life; there were episodes of religion’s rejection,but rituals and dogmas were known to everybody. In the second half ofthe 19th century, according to L.N. Tolstoy, despite the spread of religiousand church nihilism, the society continued to maintain orientationtowards religious values and recognition of the value of religion as such.Therefore, a priori, it can be assumed that the authors of the Russianautobiographical confessions of the 19th century had a positive experiencein the development (at least in part) if not within the framework of thereligious consciousness, then within the ritual and ceremonial Orthodoxlifestyle; the latter prescribed the regular execution of the sacrament ofrepentance, that dogmatically is a necessary condition for the salvationof a Christian.Most of the authors whose names are mentioned in the bookturn to the genre of confession often instinctively, perhaps even on asubconscious level. Having the need for a personal sincere expression offeelings, experiences, emotions, awareness of events, spiritual changes,accomplishments, coups, in the desire for universalization, generalization,summing up at a certain stage in life, they turn to the most adequate atthat time and well-known since the childhood and from the Orthodoxrite form of confession. An autobiographical confession captures, fixes inwriting and in the mind of the writer a certain significant stage of spiritualself-development – often a rather complicated process of existence,transformation, «unfolding» of the essence of one’s own personality.As a result of the evolution, the author, as a rule, acquires some newproperties and qualities, opens up his renewed «I», dialectically «expands»consciousness – at the level of understanding of his nature (with itscapabilities / limitations), at the level of adoption of general laws and lawsof life.The genre of autobiographical confession allows a writer to actualizeat some certain moments of life their experience of confession – as a wayof understanding of complex problems, events, conditions; as a means ofexposure, self-knowledge and purification of the soul; as a tool to achievethe desired.Confession, based on the results of the study, becomes anautobiographical representative for the authors in the 19th century due todifferent reasons. The most significant are:– it is confession that is associated with the centuries-old religioustradition of focusing a person on himself (in its reflections, observations,analysis, self-knowledge, etc.); «Our own soul», according to Gogol, «isdisposed to confession, to self-conversion», in confession «there is anexpression of both souls and hearts»;– confession correlates with the sacrament (old Greek μυστήριον –mystery) as a liturgical ritual, where, as a result of the internal processof repentance (repentance, confession), reflection (self-observation, selfanalysis),actions and thoughts that are thought of as «innermost thoughts»are revealed, «spiritual secrets»;– confession often arises as a reaction to a crisis situation, whenemotions provoke randomness, changeability, and chaotic thinking, whenturning to the depths of memory causes disordered associativity, a certainobscuring of consciousness, accompanied by «unceasing physical longing,expressed in fear of death, and unceasing mental anguish, expressed incomplete hopelessness»; when a rational, logical understanding ofthe situation is difficult and the author is struck, according to Gogol,«his own darkness and inability to express himself» and confessionalautopsychotherapy comes to his aid (confession has long been knownas healing in patristics), carried out through a written statement of theproblem, which allows to order and accordingly to clarify it more clearlyand find solutions;– autobiographical confession, being an independent but multiaspectualgenre, includes elements, absorbs, correlates with many othergenres of «personal origin», in particular,with an autobiography, since it represents events from the life storyof the author; Gogol calls confession «the story of my authorship»;Vyazemsky sees in his confession «the expression of all life», «if it doesnot suit, then my life does not suit»; A.K. Tolstoy – his «history», «bothexternal and internal»; Kelsiev – all his «strange life»; Ogarev – «thehistory of his personal path», on which he «searched for beliefs, views,truths» and so on;with memoirs (memories, notes), since it is directly addressed to thememory and reproduces events, feelings, thoughts that took place in thepast: Bakunin in confession «tries to collect all the memories»; A.K. Tolstoyretains «bright memories» of a happy childhood; L.N. Tolstoy «recalls thewhole course of his inner work» and describes what left the most «strongprints in his memory» and so on;with a letter, as it contains an element of communicativeness andpragmatic perlocutivity aimed at a specific recipient; each autobiographicalconfession, as a rule, has a specific addressee: Nikolas I, Alexander II,Alexander III, a literary critic, lawyer, friend, scientist – biographer, etc.Bakunin addresses Nikolas I: «My confession to you as my sovereignwould be in the following few words: Sovereign! I am guilty in front ofyour Majesty and the laws of the fatherland»; Ogarev to Herzen: «I amwriting because I would like to confess; this is my completely private affair.〈…〉 our repentance is understanding»; A.K. Tolstoy to the Italian scientistde Gubernatis, etc.;with recognition (testimony, evidence), that includes confirmation,explanation of actions: Kelsiev is ready to give a «separate testimonyfor each and every case in life»; Vyazemsky confesses «inappropriatefrankness»; Bakunin – in his participation in European revolutions;Gogol – in the ambitious plans «to become a famous person», L. Tolstoy –in an insane fear of death and the intention of suicide: «the horror ofdarkness was too great, and I wanted to get rid of him with a loop or abullet as soon as possible. And this particular feeling attracted me to thesuicide the most».with justification as a reason of innocence and an explanation ofcrimes or misconduct: Gogol hopes that his «upright story» will serveas an explanation and justification for at least a part of what seemsto be an «inexplicable riddle for many»; Vyazemsky makes excusesfor «accusations» of an immoral lifestyle; Kelsiev does not hide his«misconduct», «does not soften the facts», and «explains everything thathappened» during his illegal life abroad;with a petition containing various requests, complaints, prayers, appeals:Vyazemsky «asks» Nicholas I for «court» and «guard against slander»;Bakunin «prays» the emperor to heed the «request» and does not let him –the «criminal», «rot in eternal serfdom»; Tikhomirov appeals to the mercyof Alexander III and «begs» to absolve his «countless guilt» and so on;with a research as a consistent observation, meticulous study,classification and conclusions in order to establish facts, identify ownprinciples, establish truth, gain new knowledge, achieve the desiredresult: Gogol «observed himself as a teacher over a student»; Ogarevsaw in his confession «mental, theoretical development», tried to«express the results» that he came to, «convictions», which he achieved«through a long work of thought and life»; L.N. Tolstoy, «thanks to thelife spent in teaching», sought to know as much as possible; he said tohimself: «everything develops, differentiates, goes to complication andimprovement, and there are laws that guide this move»; he himself is «apart of the whole», therefore, having known the whole and the laws ofdevelopment, one can «know his place in this whole, and himself»;– confessionalism, interlacing diverse themes, problems, situations,faces, various genre-stylistic elements into a single narrative canvas,acquires the significance of a dominant that provides the author with theopportunity to discover, explain, cognize, affirm, as Gogol notes, «peopleand souls» – «from confession of a secular person to confession of theanchoret and the hermit», to preach knowledge of oneself and the world;– author’s confession (as a biography) is important as a valuableego-document, significant in itself; it is often perceived as an extremelyreliable testimony of the author about their own life and personality; it isnot for nothing that until now, confessions of the authors are consideredthe most authoritative factual sources in compiling biographies, althoughthey contain inaccuracies, intentional omissions, distortions of facts, etc.,caused by memory “failures” and those specific goals set by the authors;– the author’s confession (the path to the truth) is no less, and perhapsmore important and necessary, from the point of view of its creator, at thattense moment in their life when they address it, since it allows us to presentand justify the truth in the «last resort», which is designed to become theirspiritual and moral justification, and therefore, salvation during the crucialstage of life: L.N. Tolstoy testifies precisely to this: «how this revolutiontook place in me, I could not say», but «the power of life resumed in me,and I began to live again»…